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In the November issue of Computer
e-Science technology seeks to provide a network-centric infrastructure that gives researchers easy access to grid tools, resources, and archives. This special issue includes five contributions that address some of the challenges and give an overview of the latest research results in this area.
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computer Last modified: Monday, June 25, 2007
Best Practices for Microsoft Exchange 2007 with HP Servers and Storage in Mid-Range Environments
This paper provides configuration and performance data, best practices, and recommendations to help system administrators deploy Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 on several of the HP Modular Smart Array family of products. »
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Deploying SharePoint Server 2007 with Hyper-V on HP ProLiant Servers
This white paper outlines a list of Hyper-V "best practices" with Office SharePoint Server 2007, along with considerations for deploying Office SharePoint Server 2007 with Hyper-V on HP ProLiant servers and HP BladeSystem servers. »
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Performance and Scalability of MSFT Exchange Server 2007 on HP ProLiant Multi-Processor Server Blades
This performance brief summarizes scalability testing of Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 on HP ProLiant blade servers. The test scenario was a proof-of-concept for a customer deployment of Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 Service Pack 1 in an ISP environment, using Internet protocols for client access. »
A programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are:
It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.
It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).
Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery -- wires, transistors, and circuits -- is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software.
All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:
memory : Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs.
mass storage device : Allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.
input device : Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a computer.
output device : A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished.
central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions.
In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:
personal computer : A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying information, and a storage device for saving data.
workstation : A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor.
minicomputer : A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users simultaneously.
mainframe : A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
supercomputer : An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second.
•E-mail this definition to a colleague•
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Tuesday, November 18, 2008
love meassages
The computer plays a vital role in all the fields of our life.You people can read these articles and enjoy the messages and send it to yours loved ones. And if you want something more then you are most welcome to search in the google search box or the links on the pages.
ENJOY THE INFORMATIONS OF COMPUTER AND LOVE MESSAGES
Love is strong yet delicate.
It can be broken.
To truly love is to understand this.
To be in love is to respect this.
It's hard to tell your mind to stop loving someone when your heart still does.
The best and most beautiful things in the world can't be seen, nor touched, but are felt in the heart.
Love is like sunshine. It brings a golden glow to its beholder's face. And a warm feeling all over their body. It awakens souls and opens eyes. And when its over, it leaves billions of small memories called stars. To remind the world, that it still exists.
When you love someone, it's something. When someone loves you, it's another thing. When you love the person who loves you back, it's everything.
The greatest thing you'll ever learn is just to love and to be loved in return.
Find your perfect mate - for Free! - Click Here
Love is like the wind you can see it but you can't feel it.
A love that is denied only goes stronger.
Love People, use Things. Don't use people, don't love things.
Don't fall in love with someone you can live with, fall in love with someone you can't live without.
Love isn't finding the perfect person, it is finding the imperfect person and seeing how they are perfect.
If you love someone put their name in a circle not a heart because hearts can break but circles go on forever.
U may be out of my sight, but not out of my heart. U may be out of my reach, but not out of my mind. I may mean nothing to u, but u'll always be special to me.
True love is hard to find. Special 1-1 of a kind. But the love inside of me is true. It appeared the day I met you!
Tonight I ask the stars above. How I'll ever win your love. What do I do.What do I say. To turn your angel eyes my way?
They say you only fall in love once, it can't be true. Everytime I look at you, I fall in love all over again.
They learned me that one hours equals 60 minutes and that one minute equals 60 seconds, but they never told me that one second without you can last for ever!
There are a lot of birds wispering only about you, you should once listen to them, then you would know how much I love you.
The way you look into my eyes, It scares me
The way you say "I love you", It scares me
The way you know just what to say, It scares me
The ways you scare me, I love it
The shortest word for me is "I"
The sweetest word for me is "love"
The only word for me is "you!"
The day that I'll die, when death replaces birth, I'll recognize angels' faces, 'cus I live with one on earth.
Thank you for being the one who calms all my inner fears.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Romantic Tips!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Romantic Tips 1 Take a drive in the country.
Romantic Tips 2 Spend the evening looking at the stars -- and make a wish together.
Romantic Tips 3 Read poetry to each other.
Romantic Tips 4 Celebrate your half-birthdays together.
Romantic Tips 5 Put a picture of both of you in your wallet.
Romantic Tips 6 Buy that favorite book or CD for no reason at all.
Romantic Tips 7 Write a thank you note for all the things you take for granted.
Romantic Tips 8 Make a fire in the fireplace and roast marshmallows.
Romantic Tips 9 When attending a wedding, whisper: "If I had to do it over, I'd marry you again."
Romantic Tips 10 Hide a teeny, tiny gift somewhere on your body and make him find it.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
ENJOY THE INFORMATIONS OF COMPUTER AND LOVE MESSAGES
Love is strong yet delicate.
It can be broken.
To truly love is to understand this.
To be in love is to respect this.
It's hard to tell your mind to stop loving someone when your heart still does.
The best and most beautiful things in the world can't be seen, nor touched, but are felt in the heart.
Love is like sunshine. It brings a golden glow to its beholder's face. And a warm feeling all over their body. It awakens souls and opens eyes. And when its over, it leaves billions of small memories called stars. To remind the world, that it still exists.
When you love someone, it's something. When someone loves you, it's another thing. When you love the person who loves you back, it's everything.
The greatest thing you'll ever learn is just to love and to be loved in return.
Find your perfect mate - for Free! - Click Here
Love is like the wind you can see it but you can't feel it.
A love that is denied only goes stronger.
Love People, use Things. Don't use people, don't love things.
Don't fall in love with someone you can live with, fall in love with someone you can't live without.
Love isn't finding the perfect person, it is finding the imperfect person and seeing how they are perfect.
If you love someone put their name in a circle not a heart because hearts can break but circles go on forever.
U may be out of my sight, but not out of my heart. U may be out of my reach, but not out of my mind. I may mean nothing to u, but u'll always be special to me.
True love is hard to find. Special 1-1 of a kind. But the love inside of me is true. It appeared the day I met you!
Tonight I ask the stars above. How I'll ever win your love. What do I do.What do I say. To turn your angel eyes my way?
They say you only fall in love once, it can't be true. Everytime I look at you, I fall in love all over again.
They learned me that one hours equals 60 minutes and that one minute equals 60 seconds, but they never told me that one second without you can last for ever!
There are a lot of birds wispering only about you, you should once listen to them, then you would know how much I love you.
The way you look into my eyes, It scares me
The way you say "I love you", It scares me
The way you know just what to say, It scares me
The ways you scare me, I love it
The shortest word for me is "I"
The sweetest word for me is "love"
The only word for me is "you!"
The day that I'll die, when death replaces birth, I'll recognize angels' faces, 'cus I live with one on earth.
Thank you for being the one who calms all my inner fears.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Romantic Tips!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Romantic Tips 1 Take a drive in the country.
Romantic Tips 2 Spend the evening looking at the stars -- and make a wish together.
Romantic Tips 3 Read poetry to each other.
Romantic Tips 4 Celebrate your half-birthdays together.
Romantic Tips 5 Put a picture of both of you in your wallet.
Romantic Tips 6 Buy that favorite book or CD for no reason at all.
Romantic Tips 7 Write a thank you note for all the things you take for granted.
Romantic Tips 8 Make a fire in the fireplace and roast marshmallows.
Romantic Tips 9 When attending a wedding, whisper: "If I had to do it over, I'd marry you again."
Romantic Tips 10 Hide a teeny, tiny gift somewhere on your body and make him find it.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
love meassages
The computer plays a vital role in all the fields of our life.You people can read these articles and enjoy the messages and send it to yours loved ones. And if you want something more then you are most welcome to search in the google search box or the links on the pages.
ENJOY THE INFORMATIONS OF COMPUTER AND LOVE MESSAGES
Love is strong yet delicate.
It can be broken.
To truly love is to understand this.
To be in love is to respect this.
It's hard to tell your mind to stop loving someone when your heart still does.
The best and most beautiful things in the world can't be seen, nor touched, but are felt in the heart.
Love is like sunshine. It brings a golden glow to its beholder's face. And a warm feeling all over their body. It awakens souls and opens eyes. And when its over, it leaves billions of small memories called stars. To remind the world, that it still exists.
When you love someone, it's something. When someone loves you, it's another thing. When you love the person who loves you back, it's everything.
The greatest thing you'll ever learn is just to love and to be loved in return.
Find your perfect mate - for Free! - Click Here
Love is like the wind you can see it but you can't feel it.
A love that is denied only goes stronger.
Love People, use Things. Don't use people, don't love things.
Don't fall in love with someone you can live with, fall in love with someone you can't live without.
Love isn't finding the perfect person, it is finding the imperfect person and seeing how they are perfect.
If you love someone put their name in a circle not a heart because hearts can break but circles go on forever.
U may be out of my sight, but not out of my heart. U may be out of my reach, but not out of my mind. I may mean nothing to u, but u'll always be special to me.
True love is hard to find. Special 1-1 of a kind. But the love inside of me is true. It appeared the day I met you!
Tonight I ask the stars above. How I'll ever win your love. What do I do.What do I say. To turn your angel eyes my way?
They say you only fall in love once, it can't be true. Everytime I look at you, I fall in love all over again.
They learned me that one hours equals 60 minutes and that one minute equals 60 seconds, but they never told me that one second without you can last for ever!
There are a lot of birds wispering only about you, you should once listen to them, then you would know how much I love you.
The way you look into my eyes, It scares me
The way you say "I love you", It scares me
The way you know just what to say, It scares me
The ways you scare me, I love it
The shortest word for me is "I"
The sweetest word for me is "love"
The only word for me is "you!"
The day that I'll die, when death replaces birth, I'll recognize angels' faces, 'cus I live with one on earth.
Thank you for being the one who calms all my inner fears.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Romantic Tips!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Romantic Tips 1 Take a drive in the country.
Romantic Tips 2 Spend the evening looking at the stars -- and make a wish together.
Romantic Tips 3 Read poetry to each other.
Romantic Tips 4 Celebrate your half-birthdays together.
Romantic Tips 5 Put a picture of both of you in your wallet.
Romantic Tips 6 Buy that favorite book or CD for no reason at all.
Romantic Tips 7 Write a thank you note for all the things you take for granted.
Romantic Tips 8 Make a fire in the fireplace and roast marshmallows.
Romantic Tips 9 When attending a wedding, whisper: "If I had to do it over, I'd marry you again."
Romantic Tips 10 Hide a teeny, tiny gift somewhere on your body and make him find it.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
ENJOY THE INFORMATIONS OF COMPUTER AND LOVE MESSAGES
Love is strong yet delicate.
It can be broken.
To truly love is to understand this.
To be in love is to respect this.
It's hard to tell your mind to stop loving someone when your heart still does.
The best and most beautiful things in the world can't be seen, nor touched, but are felt in the heart.
Love is like sunshine. It brings a golden glow to its beholder's face. And a warm feeling all over their body. It awakens souls and opens eyes. And when its over, it leaves billions of small memories called stars. To remind the world, that it still exists.
When you love someone, it's something. When someone loves you, it's another thing. When you love the person who loves you back, it's everything.
The greatest thing you'll ever learn is just to love and to be loved in return.
Find your perfect mate - for Free! - Click Here
Love is like the wind you can see it but you can't feel it.
A love that is denied only goes stronger.
Love People, use Things. Don't use people, don't love things.
Don't fall in love with someone you can live with, fall in love with someone you can't live without.
Love isn't finding the perfect person, it is finding the imperfect person and seeing how they are perfect.
If you love someone put their name in a circle not a heart because hearts can break but circles go on forever.
U may be out of my sight, but not out of my heart. U may be out of my reach, but not out of my mind. I may mean nothing to u, but u'll always be special to me.
True love is hard to find. Special 1-1 of a kind. But the love inside of me is true. It appeared the day I met you!
Tonight I ask the stars above. How I'll ever win your love. What do I do.What do I say. To turn your angel eyes my way?
They say you only fall in love once, it can't be true. Everytime I look at you, I fall in love all over again.
They learned me that one hours equals 60 minutes and that one minute equals 60 seconds, but they never told me that one second without you can last for ever!
There are a lot of birds wispering only about you, you should once listen to them, then you would know how much I love you.
The way you look into my eyes, It scares me
The way you say "I love you", It scares me
The way you know just what to say, It scares me
The ways you scare me, I love it
The shortest word for me is "I"
The sweetest word for me is "love"
The only word for me is "you!"
The day that I'll die, when death replaces birth, I'll recognize angels' faces, 'cus I live with one on earth.
Thank you for being the one who calms all my inner fears.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Romantic Tips!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Romantic Tips 1 Take a drive in the country.
Romantic Tips 2 Spend the evening looking at the stars -- and make a wish together.
Romantic Tips 3 Read poetry to each other.
Romantic Tips 4 Celebrate your half-birthdays together.
Romantic Tips 5 Put a picture of both of you in your wallet.
Romantic Tips 6 Buy that favorite book or CD for no reason at all.
Romantic Tips 7 Write a thank you note for all the things you take for granted.
Romantic Tips 8 Make a fire in the fireplace and roast marshmallows.
Romantic Tips 9 When attending a wedding, whisper: "If I had to do it over, I'd marry you again."
Romantic Tips 10 Hide a teeny, tiny gift somewhere on your body and make him find it.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
MOst funny jokes
We will now upgrade your brain, please wait....Searching....searching...still searching....sorry,NO BRAIN found...!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
I'M AN ALIEN. I HAVE JUST TRANSFORMED MYSELF INTO THIS TEST. AS YOU ARE READING I'M HAVING SEX WITH YOUR EYEBALLS. I KNOW THAT YOU LIKE IT BECAUSE YOU ARE SMILING
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
This dog, is dog, a dog, good dog, way dog, to dog, keep dog, an dog, idiot dog, busy dog, for dog, 20 dog, seconds dog! ... Now read without the word dog.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Boss: (to employee) - Experts say humor on the job relieves tension in this time of down-sizing, Knock, Knock.
Employee: Who's there?
Boss: Not you anymore.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Q: Why was the leper caught speeding?
A: He couldn't take his foot of the accelerator.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
A chicken sandwidch walked into the bar, ordered some food and beer. The bartender says: "Sorry, we don't serve food here".
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
News: 3 Chimps escaped from the zoo... 1 was caught watching tv... another playing football and the third one was caught reading this txt message
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
I want to suck you... lick you... wanna move my tongue all over you...wanna feel you in my mouth...yep, tat's how u...eat an ice cream!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Two goldfish are in a tank. One says to the other, "Do you know how to drive this thing?"
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
I'M AN ALIEN. I HAVE JUST TRANSFORMED MYSELF INTO THIS TEST. AS YOU ARE READING I'M HAVING SEX WITH YOUR EYEBALLS. I KNOW THAT YOU LIKE IT BECAUSE YOU ARE SMILING
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
This dog, is dog, a dog, good dog, way dog, to dog, keep dog, an dog, idiot dog, busy dog, for dog, 20 dog, seconds dog! ... Now read without the word dog.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Boss: (to employee) - Experts say humor on the job relieves tension in this time of down-sizing, Knock, Knock.
Employee: Who's there?
Boss: Not you anymore.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Q: Why was the leper caught speeding?
A: He couldn't take his foot of the accelerator.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
A chicken sandwidch walked into the bar, ordered some food and beer. The bartender says: "Sorry, we don't serve food here".
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
News: 3 Chimps escaped from the zoo... 1 was caught watching tv... another playing football and the third one was caught reading this txt message
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
I want to suck you... lick you... wanna move my tongue all over you...wanna feel you in my mouth...yep, tat's how u...eat an ice cream!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Two goldfish are in a tank. One says to the other, "Do you know how to drive this thing?"
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Friday, November 14, 2008
mathematics
Mathematics is the academic discipline, and its supporting body of knowledge, that involves the study of such concepts as quantity, structure, space and change. The mathematician Benjamin Peirce called it "the science that draws necessary conclusions".[2] Other practitioners of mathematics maintain that mathematics is the science of pattern, and that mathematicians seek out patterns whether found in numbers, space, science, computers, imaginary abstractions, or elsewhere.[3][4] Mathematicians explore such concepts, aiming to formulate new conjectures and establish their truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions.[5]
Through the use of abstraction and logical reasoning, mathematics evolved from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Knowledge and use of basic mathematics have always been an inherent and integral part of individual and group life. Refinements of the basic ideas are visible in mathematical texts originating in the ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Indian, Chinese, Greek and Islamic worlds. Rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements. The development continued in fitful bursts until the Renaissance period of the 16th century, when mathematical innovations interacted with new scientific discoveries, leading to an acceleration in research that continues to the present day.[6]
Today, mathematics is used throughout the world as an essential tool in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, and the social sciences such as economics and psychology. Applied mathematics, the branch of mathematics concerned with application of mathematical knowledge to other fields, inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and sometimes leads to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind, although practical applications for what began as pure mathematics are often discovered later.[7]
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics
4 Notation, language, and rigor
5 Mathematics as science
6 Fields of mathematics
6.1 Quantity
6.2 Structure
6.3 Space
6.4 Change
6.5 Foundations and philosophy
6.6 Discrete mathematics
6.7 Applied mathematics
7 Common misconceptions
7.1 Mathematics and physical reality
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Through the use of abstraction and logical reasoning, mathematics evolved from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Knowledge and use of basic mathematics have always been an inherent and integral part of individual and group life. Refinements of the basic ideas are visible in mathematical texts originating in the ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Indian, Chinese, Greek and Islamic worlds. Rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements. The development continued in fitful bursts until the Renaissance period of the 16th century, when mathematical innovations interacted with new scientific discoveries, leading to an acceleration in research that continues to the present day.[6]
Today, mathematics is used throughout the world as an essential tool in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, and the social sciences such as economics and psychology. Applied mathematics, the branch of mathematics concerned with application of mathematical knowledge to other fields, inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and sometimes leads to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind, although practical applications for what began as pure mathematics are often discovered later.[7]
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Inspiration, pure and applied mathematics, and aesthetics
4 Notation, language, and rigor
5 Mathematics as science
6 Fields of mathematics
6.1 Quantity
6.2 Structure
6.3 Space
6.4 Change
6.5 Foundations and philosophy
6.6 Discrete mathematics
6.7 Applied mathematics
7 Common misconceptions
7.1 Mathematics and physical reality
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Pogram development
Software designers create new programs by using special applications programs, often called utilityprograms or development programs. A programmer uses another type of program called a text editor to write the new program in a special notation called a programming language. With the text editor, the programmer creates a text file, which is an ordered list of instructions, also called the program source file. The individual instructions that make up the program source file are called source code. At this point, a special applications program translates the source code into machine language, or object code—a format that the operating system will recognize as a proper program and be able to execute.
Three types of applications programs translate from source code to object code: compilers, interpreters, and assemblers. The three operate differently and on different types of programming languages, but they serve the same purpose of translating from a programming language into machine language. See; Assembly Language.
Three types of applications programs translate from source code to object code: compilers, interpreters, and assemblers. The three operate differently and on different types of programming languages, but they serve the same purpose of translating from a programming language into machine language. See; Assembly Language.
Computer fields & it's relation with other subjects
As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.[15][16] The Computer Sciences Accreditation Board (CSAB) – which is made up of representatives of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society, and the Association for Information Systems – identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.[15]
[edit] Theory of computation
P = NP ?
Automata theory Computability theory Computational complexity theory Quantum computing theory
[edit] Mathematical foundations
int x
Mathematical logic Number theory Graph theory Type Theory Category Theory Computational geometry
[edit] Algorithms and data structures
O(n2)
Analysis of algorithms Algorithms Data structures
[edit] Programming methodology and languages
Compilers Programming languages
[edit] Computer elements and architecture
Digital logic Microarchitecture Multiprocessing
[edit] Numerical and symbolic computation
y = sin(x) + c
Bioinformatics Cognitive Science Computational chemistry Computational neuroscience Computational physics Numerical algorithms Symbolic mathematics
[edit] Relationship with other fields
Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy, to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the Communications of the ACM – turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist.[17] Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next year by hypologist.[18] The term computics has also been suggested.[19] Informatik was a term used in Europe with more frequency.
The renowned computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra stated, "Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes." The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems. Computer science is sometimes criticized as being insufficiently scientific, a view espoused in the statement "Science is to computer science as hydrodynamics is to plumbing", credited to Stan Kelly-Bootle[20] and others. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as cognitive science, economics, mathematics, physics (see quantum computing), and linguistics.
Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines.[8] Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra.
The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.[21]
The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment computational science. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.
[edit] Theory of computation
P = NP ?
Automata theory Computability theory Computational complexity theory Quantum computing theory
[edit] Mathematical foundations
int x
Mathematical logic Number theory Graph theory Type Theory Category Theory Computational geometry
[edit] Algorithms and data structures
O(n2)
Analysis of algorithms Algorithms Data structures
[edit] Programming methodology and languages
Compilers Programming languages
[edit] Computer elements and architecture
Digital logic Microarchitecture Multiprocessing
[edit] Numerical and symbolic computation
y = sin(x) + c
Bioinformatics Cognitive Science Computational chemistry Computational neuroscience Computational physics Numerical algorithms Symbolic mathematics
[edit] Relationship with other fields
Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy, to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the Communications of the ACM – turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist.[17] Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next year by hypologist.[18] The term computics has also been suggested.[19] Informatik was a term used in Europe with more frequency.
The renowned computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra stated, "Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes." The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems. Computer science is sometimes criticized as being insufficiently scientific, a view espoused in the statement "Science is to computer science as hydrodynamics is to plumbing", credited to Stan Kelly-Bootle[20] and others. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as cognitive science, economics, mathematics, physics (see quantum computing), and linguistics.
Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines.[8] Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra.
The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.[21]
The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment computational science. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.
Computer Program
Computer Program, set of instructions that directs a computer to perform some processing function or combination of functions. For the instructions to be carried out, a computer must execute a program, that is, the computer reads the program, and then follows the steps encoded in the program in a precise order until completion. A program can be executed many different times, with each execution yielding a potentially different result depending upon the options and data that the user gives the computer.
Programs fall into two major classes: application programs and operating systems. An application program is one that carries out some function directly for a user, such as word processing or game-playing. An operating system is a program that manages the computer and the various resources and devices connected to it, such as RAM (random access memory), hard drives, monitors, keyboards, printers, and modems, so that they may be used by other programs. Examples of operating systems are DOS, Windows 95, OS/2, and UNIX.
Programs fall into two major classes: application programs and operating systems. An application program is one that carries out some function directly for a user, such as word processing or game-playing. An operating system is a program that manages the computer and the various resources and devices connected to it, such as RAM (random access memory), hard drives, monitors, keyboards, printers, and modems, so that they may be used by other programs. Examples of operating systems are DOS, Windows 95, OS/2, and UNIX.
Computer science
Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the science of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems.[1][2][3] Computer science has many sub-fields; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as computer graphics), while others relate to properties of computational problems (such as computational complexity theory). Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to describing computations, while computer programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific computational problems. A further subfield, human-computer interaction, focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable and universally accessible to people.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Major achievements
3 Fields of computer science
3.1 Theory of computation
3.1.1 Mathematical foundations
3.2 Algorithms and data structures
3.3 Programming methodology and languages
3.4 Computer elements and architecture
3.5 Numerical and symbolic computation
4 Relationship with other fields
5 Computer science education
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
9.1 Webcasts
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Major achievements
3 Fields of computer science
3.1 Theory of computation
3.1.1 Mathematical foundations
3.2 Algorithms and data structures
3.3 Programming methodology and languages
3.4 Computer elements and architecture
3.5 Numerical and symbolic computation
4 Relationship with other fields
5 Computer science education
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
9.1 Webcasts
How a CPU Works
A CPU Function
A CPU is similar to a calculator, only much more powerful. The main function of the CPU is to perform arithmetic and logical operations on data taken from memory or on information entered through some device, such as a keyboard, scanner, or joystick. The CPU is controlled by a list of software instructions, called a computer program. Software instructions entering the CPU originate in some form of memory storage device such as a hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, or magnetic tape. These instructions then pass into the computer’s main random access memory (RAM), where each instruction is given a unique address, or memory location. The CPU can access specific pieces of data in RAM by specifying the address of the data that it wants.
As a program is executed, data flow from RAM through an interface unit of wires called the bus, which connects the CPU to RAM. The data are then decoded by a processing unit called the instruction decoder that interprets and implements software instructions. From the instruction decoder the data pass to the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), which performs calculations and comparisons. Data may be stored by the ALU in temporary memory locations called registers where it may be retrieved quickly. The ALU performs specific operations such as addition, multiplication, and conditional tests on the data in its registers, sending the resulting data back to RAM or storing it in another register for further use. During this process, a unit called the program counter keeps track of each successive instruction to make sure that the program instructions are followed by the CPU in the correct order.
A CPU is similar to a calculator, only much more powerful. The main function of the CPU is to perform arithmetic and logical operations on data taken from memory or on information entered through some device, such as a keyboard, scanner, or joystick. The CPU is controlled by a list of software instructions, called a computer program. Software instructions entering the CPU originate in some form of memory storage device such as a hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, or magnetic tape. These instructions then pass into the computer’s main random access memory (RAM), where each instruction is given a unique address, or memory location. The CPU can access specific pieces of data in RAM by specifying the address of the data that it wants.
As a program is executed, data flow from RAM through an interface unit of wires called the bus, which connects the CPU to RAM. The data are then decoded by a processing unit called the instruction decoder that interprets and implements software instructions. From the instruction decoder the data pass to the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), which performs calculations and comparisons. Data may be stored by the ALU in temporary memory locations called registers where it may be retrieved quickly. The ALU performs specific operations such as addition, multiplication, and conditional tests on the data in its registers, sending the resulting data back to RAM or storing it in another register for further use. During this process, a unit called the program counter keeps track of each successive instruction to make sure that the program instructions are followed by the CPU in the correct order.
Central Processing Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU), in computer science, microscopic circuitry that serves as the main information processor in a computer. A CPU is generally a single microprocessor made from a wafer of semiconducting material, usually silicon, with millions of electrical components on its surface. On a higher level, the CPU is actually a number of interconnected processing units that are each responsible for one aspect of the CPU’s function. Standard CPUs contain processing units that interpret and implement software instructions, perform calculations and comparisons, make logical decisions (determining if a statement is true or false based on the rules of Boolean algebra), temporarily store information for use by another of the CPU’s processing units, keep track of the current step in the execution of the program, and allow the CPU to communicate with the rest of the computer.
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